Social Construction of Crime

Social Construction of Crime The essay focuses on the social construction of crime, and the possible reasons for these social constructions. In the first section, the essay explains what crime is, and the constructionist perspective theory. In the Second section my essay focuses on the crime as socially constructed and why it is socially constructed. In the third section essay explains, three levels of explanation in the study of deviant and criminal behaviour. In the final section, it focuses on the historical theoretical periods, which plays an important role in revitalising past discoveries. Crime is a term that refers to many types of misconduct that is forbidden by law. There are a number of different reasons as to why crime can be viewed as a social construction. There cannot be social problems that are not the product of social construction naming, labelling, defining and mapping them into place through which we can make sense of them (Clarke, 2001). In this essay I will explain what is social construction, also what crime is, and why we think, that crime is socially constructed. Furthermore, I will explain how media construct crime and the stigma of black crime. In the last paragraph I will explore the importance of Marxist and Durkheims theories on the emergence of crime. There is no doubt that crime is socially constructed. The constructionist perspective draws on a very different sociological inheritance, one that treats society as a matrix of meaning. It accords a central role to the processes of constructing, producing and circulating meanings. Within this perspective, we cannot grasp reality in a direct and unmediated way Reality is always mediated by meaning (John Clarke p.6). Indeed, some of its proponents argue that what we experience is the social construction of reality (Berger, 1967). How something or someone is named, identified and placed within a map of the social orders has profound consequences for how we act towards it or them (Becker, 1963). Public concern over crime relates mainly to theft and violence, which are regarded as being serious enough to warrant sustained attention from the police. This concern, reflected in periodic moral panics, tends to ensure that many of those who are involved in theft and criminal violence do so as a form of secondary deviation. As a result, many of them develop a criminal identity (Becker, H. S, 1963). The national British crime survey (BCS) reports showed that the risk of being victims of crime is shaped by locality, lifestyle, age, gender and ethnicity. BCS confirm that the risk of being a victim of contact crime are highest for men those aged under 30, those living in intercity areas and those living in privately rented accommodation. Noon the less according to the BCS it is frequently those who are least at risk of crime who are most anxious about it, notably older people and women(May et al,2009). The very good example of how crime can be socially constructed is Black Crime (McLaughlin, 264). During the early 1970s indicated, that the media has continued to project an image of Britain as a white society (Hartman 1974). Crime and criminality came to be the central motif that constructed black people as a problem presence, and also signifying that they were not really British (McLaughlin, 264).   Gilroy (1987) has added to this by analysing discourses on race, crime and nations. Perceptions of the weakness of black culture and family life, sometimes explained by absence of a father or authority figure, or more crudely, by a lack of respect for the Law and British tradition of civility, served to define black people as lesser breeds without the Law , as the others who stands outside what is meant to be British(Gilroy, 1987). However the significance of the prolonged campaign that led to the inquiry into the murder of Stephen Lawrence cannot be overstated. Dominant representatio ns of black people as a problem for white British society have been successfully challenged (Murji, 274).   The media is the most powerful organisation which does a big impact on social construction of the crime. The importance of the news media in framing the public understanding of social problems is widely recognized (McLaughlin, 263). Research in many countries confirms that crime reports are among the most headlines catching of news commodities. It is also suggested that there is broad correspondence between the images of criminality articulated in the news media and the interpretation for this (Murji, 264). Such as media presentation of the information reinforces social construction of the crime (McLaughlin et al, 264). There are three levels of explanation in the study of deviant and criminal behaviour. A first level of explanation is concerned with the existence of the many different forms of human behaviour that occur in any society (Becker, 1963). Biology may contribute towards an explanation of this diversity, but it can never provide the whole explanation. It is always necessary to take account of processes of socialization (Becker, 1963). Biological theory of crime, arguing that any association between physical characteristics and their behaviour can be explained(Young 1999). According to Young, lower working class children who are more likely to be involved, in the crime, are also by virtue of diet, continual manual labour, physical fitness and strength, more likely to be mesomorphic (Young 1999, 387).Young claims that males chromosome could lead to behaviour that to others it would look odd, and this differences may exclude them from normal social life, which in turn may lead them to crime. However according to Kelly, behaviour attributed to biological causes may not necessary lead to crime. The biochemistry of the body may affect behaviour as he points out for example A Diabetic person,   without recent insulin injection may become tense, short tempered, but his behaviour does not constitute a criminal act( Haralambos 1999). A second level of explanation is concerned with the variation in norms between social groups, as manifested particularly in cultural and subculture differences (Becker, 1963). Lea and Young stress out that crime is only one aspect, though generally a small one, of the process of cultural adaptation to oppression. Unlike Gilroy, they see West Indian crime as a response to condition in Britain rather than as a continuation of traditions from the West Indies (Lea el at.1999, 428). Socialization takes place within particular social groups, and it is the norms of these groups that provide the standards for the identification of particular kinds of b ehaviour as criminal (Becker, 1963). The third, and final, level of explanation is concerned with the ways in which particular individuals are identified as criminals by others and so come to develop a criminal identity. This is a matter of social reaction and control (Becker, H,1963). In addition to understand social construction of crime, it is very important to look back at historical theoretical periods, which plays an important roles in revitalising past   discoveries, putting new stress on the interpretation of events and relating these to current happenings(Jock Young, 307). First of all I would like to look at Marxist theory, where he sees crime being endemic in the social order. According to Marxism, men make their own history, but they do not make it just as they please: they do not make it under circumstances chosen by themselves, but under circumstances directed encountered, given and transmitted from the past (Marx, 1969,p.360).   Marxist frameworks have developed a Marxist theory of crime. From Marx perspectives crime is seen largely as the product of capitalism, with criminal and antisocial behaviour indicative of the contradictions and problems inherent in the capitalist system (Marsh, 1997, 519). The basic motivation of capitalism, such as emphasis on materialism and self- enrichment, encourage self-interested, anti-social and, by implication, criminal behaviour (Marsh, 1997, 519). Marxist s argues that business crime is largely ignored by the legal system. There are some well publicized exceptions, but these tend just to reinforce the impres sion that criminals are mainly from the working classes and that business criminals are not real criminals they are just doing what everyone else does (Marsh,1997,519). Marxist arguments suggest that capitalism produces the conditions that generate criminal behaviour. According to him, crime occurs because of economic deprivation and because of the contradictions that are apparent in capitalist society. Working-class crime is a rebellion against inequality and against the system that uses the legal process- including the Law, the police, courts and prison as weapons in a class war(Marsh, 1997, 522). According to Durkheims crime theory, he points out two arguments on crime growth. The first argument is, that modern industrial urban societies encourage a state of egoism which is contrary to the maintenance of social solidarity and to conformity to Law , and second is, that in periods of rapid social change anomies occurs. By this he meant an anomic disordered society lacking effective forms of social control, and thereby leading to a state of individually perceived formlessness (Frank Heathcote, 347). Durkheim arguments that crime is inevitable and functional does not explain the causes of crime or why certain people are more likely to engage in, criminal activities than others (Frank Heathcote, 348). Regarding to Durkheim, crime is present in all types of socially, and that crime is higher in more industrialised countries   ( Haralambos 1999,389). Durkheim explains why he sees crime inevitable, he explains that it is inevitable because not every member of society can be equally committed to the collective sentiments, and that it is impossible for all to be alike (Holborn 1999.389). He also explains crime as being functional, and that its function not to remove crime in society, but to maintain the collective sentiments at their necessary level of strength. Durkheim believed that without punishment the collective sentiments would lose their force to control behaviour and crime rate would become dysfunctional. Durkheim view that healthy society requires both crime and punishment ( Haralambos. 1999, 390). More recently functionalist theories, based on the notion of there being a general consensus of values and norms, have focused on causes of criminal behaviour. Functionalist theories of crime tend to assume that there is general consensus within society over what is right and wrong behaviour. The interactionist approach questions this assumption; it does not see criminals as essentially different from so called normal people. Many people commit criminal action and it is therefore not easy to maintain a clear distinction between the criminal in terms of particular personal characteristics (Marsh, 1997, 517).   To summary, in my essay firstly I discussed that, crime has been seen as a response to the frustration felt by those who cannot achieve the norms or goals of society. Secondly, how dominant representations of black people as problems for white people society have been successfully challenged. Thirdly, that the media is the most powerful organisation which does a big impact on social construction of the crime, and finally I argued two most important theories, which are still in use. References: Becker. H. S. (1963), Outsiders: Studies in the Sociology of Deviance (New York: Free Press). Fitzgerald. M. el at (1990). Social Disorganisation theories. Heathcote F (1990). Crime and Society. London: The Open University Press. Haralambos, M. el at (1999). Themes and Perspectives. Fourth Edition. London: Harper Collins. May. M. el at (2009). Crime Disorders and Community Safety. Dee Cook. (2009) Understanding Social Problems, Australia: Blackwell. Marsh. I. el at (2009). Making Sense of Society. Fourth Edition. London: Longman.

The Miranda Warning :: essays research papers

The Miranda Warning For the past decade, many Right Wing organizations have sort to change many of the laws, governing our rights and freedom. These laws were passed by congress and upheld by the Supreme Court. The Miranda Warning is one of these laws. The Miranda Warning is intended to protect the guilty as well as the innocent and should be protected at all costs. Without the law, many suspects may be treated unfairly. It is a necessary safeguard. Miranda is a ruling which says that the accused have the right to remain silent and prosecutors may not use statements made by them while in police custody, unless the police advice them of their rights. In other words, a police officer must inform a suspect of this fundamental right, under the Fifth Amendment, at the time of their arrest and or interrogation. Miranda protect ignorant suspects from incriminating themselves. Miranda also protects suspects from overzealous police officers. Although most law-enforcement agents in the United States are decent men and women, some abuse their power. They may try to coerce suspects into giving false confessions. Time and time again, we read of cases where suspects were forced to make confessions because an overzealous or prejudiced police officers want to close a case. The story of Rubin Hurricane Carter, made popular by the motion picture of the same name, demonstrated how lives could be destroyed when vindictive and manipulating detectives abuse their power. The Miranda Warning helps keep abuses in check. If the law is used correctly, the guilty would receive their due punishment. When police officers inform suspects of their rights before interrogation, it is very unlikely that the judge presiding over any case would throw out statements made during questioning. Many high ranking law enforcement agents around the country support the Miranda Warning rule because it is a necessary safeguard; it helps and does not hinders the judicial process. William J. Bratton former police commissioner for the New York City Police Department said, "Miranda works at a minimal social cost. The Supreme Court should reaffirm a decision that has served this country well." I believe that the Miranda warning protects all citizens, guilty and innocent, victim and perpetrator, from unscrupulous officers. The law was designed to insure that the statement given is voluntary and not extracted by force or coercion. Many courts including the Supreme Court have made thousands of decisions using the Miranda ruling without any indication that the law was unconstitutional or benefit criminals.

My missing key Essay

In the early year 2000, I discovered the amazing internet, it attracted me so much that I changed my mind regarding the path of my studies, consequently I wanted to study Business and informatics. Spending couple of years self-learning about computer hardware and software. Hardly using the internet and consulting few IT technician, I found out that I had missed a pretty important part of ICT since I came across this module. As a computer enthusiast and technician to become, I believe this module is the primary key that I needed all these years even though I first thought that I did not need it and it was going to be easy to pass the module, but it wasn’t quietly what I expected by means of time consuming work, fundamental skills in word processing and data processing in Excel. I have gathered knowledge about ICTs for development in a manner that I never thought of. With students in my group I had this first experience of sharing and debating on common and uncommon ideas which of many changed my point of views about the steps to take in many areas of life involving ICT. This module had first impacted my studies with overwhelming time consecration by submitting assignments almost every week. Therefore in the beginning I tackled all practical grader works after the first one in about two weeks around mid-August. Then I was left with the remaining discussions until I came across the unexpected â€Å"learning more about excel† assignment that I found very deviating from Engineering, but with the least of choice I had to stick to the schedule so I learnt and did the best I could. This is just to portray the last and only difficulty I encountered through my journey in this module. I truly believe this module is very important for my career however I feel that I should not limit to it as if I learnt everything on Ethical Information and Communication Technologies for Development Solutions though at the beginning I believed that I will get all the answers about ICT and development. Nevertheless the learning and working through the module gave  me the basics on that matter and widely opened my mind in the way of showing me exactly how to carry on what I learnt. There are few things that I found though that would have been very useful if they were added to this module such as; the basics of computer skills for example. Beside the ethical to find solution, I felt the need of knowing how to; switch on and to turn off a computer, safely save my work on an external storage or how to handle the computer itself against viruses. To conclude, I have the confidence that the module enhanced my knowledge about development solutions and improved my skills in word processing and spreadsheet and has gave me a shot in the arm with all the tools that was missing in my career which strongly make me feel of bringing a hand to my community.

Doctors Riot essays

Doctor's Riot essays In former times body-snatching, or digging up bodies for dissections was much more heard of than at present. The fear if it was so great, that often, in the neighborhood where medical students were pursuing their studies, persons who lost friends and family members would have a watch kept over their graves for several nights, to prevent them from being dug up. Neither the high social position nor sex of the dead provided a barrier to this disturbance of the graves. Although it was established that for thorough instruction in medical science, subjects for dissection were necessary, yet no one outside of the medical profession could be found to authorize body-snatching. In the winter of 1787 and 1788, medical students of New York City dug up bodies more frequently than usual. Usually, the students had contented themselves with ripping open the graves of strangers and Negroes, about whom there was little concern. This winter, however, they dug up respectable people, even young women, of whom they made an indecent exposure. The stories did not lose anything by reputation, and soon the conduct of physicians and medical students became a town talk. The graveyards were easily accessible while there are plenty of men to be found, who, for a small sum, would dig up any body anyone desired. In 1788 the towns only shelter for the ill was New York Hospital, a three-story structure atop a small hill west of Broadway between Duane and Reade streets.1 Due to the fact that British soldiers had left the place in horrible condition, the facility could not be used for practice of medicine. Two of its rooms had been altered by the professors of the nearby Columbia College into dissecting rooms for the students. A mere accident caused this state of feeling to culminate and suddenly break out into action. On Sunday, April 13th, some boys were playing in the rear of the New York Hospital as they...

Pmo Research Essay

Pmo Research Essay Pmo Research Essay QM Summative Assignment: (Q1): Below are the 30 observations and the log returns for my three chosen stocks: G4S, GKN and GLAXOSMITHKINE. Below is the logarithmic returns formula: rLOG = (Final amount of investment / Initial amount of investment) * 100 G4S - PRICE INDEX GKN - PRICE INDEX GLAXOS- PRICE INDEX 871674(PI) Log Return 900754(PI) Log Return 900479(PI) Log Return 264.5 1208 64980.3 284.6 0.073243434 964 -0.225630084 58890.7 -0.098400964 278 -0.023463572 1011 0.047603924 56365.7 -0.043822366 208.9 -0.285765445 968.3 -0.043153262 66651.1 0.167610733 211 0.010002465 1100.2 0.127705304 73557.6 0.098597222 197.4 -0.066626006 1142.4 0.037639331 70178.6 -0.047025352 224.6 0.129088915 1044.5 -0.089593011 71552.4 0.019386627 204 -0.096201048 1058.7 0.013503438 71366.8 -0.002597273 232.8 0.132059722 1108.9 0.046326793 73557.6 0.030235998 230.3 -0.010796909 835.7 -0.282854115 76045.4 0.033261758 235.3 0.021478489 978.8 0.158057635 73669 -0.031748444 227 -0.035911278 951.6 -0.028182553 76379.6 0.036133558 257.1 0.124515097 876 -0.082778687 70178.6 -0.084672224 256.6 -0.001946662 1029.6 0.161559565 66651.1 -0.051571871 273.9 0.065244624 997.4 -0.031773763 70735.6 0.059477432 252.5 -0.081351828 895.2 -0.108104736 68359.1 -0.03417429 274.7 0.084268344 934.8 0.043285446 68581.9 0.003253959 296.1 0.075017642 923.7 -0.011945259 70995.5 0.034587843 271.5 -0.086735096 845 -0.089050716 74263.1 0.044997698 286.3 0.053078073 880.9 0.041607485 75265.6 0.013408998 262.4 -0.087170155 872.8 -0.009237678 67876.5 -0.103333314 192.5 -0.309773903 776.6 -0.116781017 71292.6 0.049102658 167.8 -0.13732336 751.8 -0.032455086 68693.4 -0.03713941 171.1 0.019475387 790.7 0.050448298 65351.5 -0.049872732 193.3 0.121995205 749.7 -0.053245503 63977.7 -0.021245808 200.7 0.03756787 771.6 0.028793155 62715.2 -0.019930743 217.2 0.079007332 831.8 0.075125746 64014.8 0.020510464 200.7 -0.079007332 976 0.159870559 61415.6 -0.041450432 204.8 0.020222637 908.1 -0.072108082 61638.4 0.003621178 214.3 0.045343009 945.6 0.040465142 52132.7 -0.167492662 These log returns can then be used to calculate the descriptive statistics. Through inputting the data into Excel, the data is provided. Descriptive Statistics: Statistic Name: G4S Name: GKN Name: GLAXO SMITH KINE Time Period: Start – 31/12/1999 End – 31/05/2002 Mean -0.007257391 -0.008444887 -0.007596267 Standard Error 0.020441715 0.019323072 0.012188405 Median 0.019475387 -0.009237678 - 0.002597273 Mode #N/A #N/A #N/A Standard deviation 0.110082005 0.104057928 0.065636568 Sample variance 0.012118048 0.010828052 0.004308159 Kurtosis 1.611338969 0.849653662 1.361266742 Skewness -1.182990353 -0.564157907 0.135248479 Range 0.441833625 0.44441368 0.335103395 Minimum -0.309773903 -0.282854115 - 0.167492662 Maximum 0.132059722 0.161559565 0.167610733 Sum -0.210464349 -0.244901732 - 0.220291756 Count 29 29 29 Analysis of statistics: By examining the derived results, we can come to the following conclusions: The scale of difference between the stocks was differing. G4S’ mean return was -0.0073 whilst GKN’s was -0.0084 and GLAXOSMITHKINE’s was -0.0076. We can see that whilst G4S and GLAXOSMITHKINE were close, GKN’s differed greatly. The median indicates over half of

Comparison between the benefits of Vegetarian and Meat Diets Essay

Comparison between the benefits of Vegetarian and Meat Diets - Essay Example Plant foods are generally cheaper to obtain compared to animal foods. This is because of the reduced cost of production in plant foods. Going vegetarian can be beneficial for the environment. This is because of the reduced and none toxic waste associated with processing plant foods. According to Jaminet et.al; â€Å"†¦.vegetarian diets ensure vitality† (p.12). There are also aesthetic benefits associated with an all plant diet like better breath. DisadvantagesStrict vegetarians risk suffering from a deficiency of some essential nutrients like Vitamin B12, Vitamin D, and Iron. Vitamin B12 and D, for example, are only found in animal products. There are questions about the bioavailability of the B12 in algae. Strict vegetarians, therefore, require supplementation to meet their body needs. The iron in plants is not easily absorbed because of the presence of anti-nutrients that bind iron. Therefore, a vegan needs to take plants rich in iron combined with those rich in vitamin C to counter this effect. Access to complete proteins may be limited in plant based diets. A complete protein is one which contains all the essential amino acids that are not produced by the body. It is, therefore, necessary to pair foods together. A meat free diet does not necessarily mean a healthy diet. The elimination of meat does not necessarily mean one has done away with sugar or fat. Few restaurants serve vegetarian dishes which means for one to main tain this lifestyle, they need to be committed and adapt to preparing food for themselves.

Live Performance Review Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Live Performance Review - Essay Example Currently, The Blind Tiger stands out as the best live music venue in the state of North Carolina. It is committed to bring out the best out of regional, local and national music. Almost all the local talents that reside in Greensboro attribute the exposure and discovery of their talent to the Tiger (Coston 56). With twenty five years of supporting live music, the club anticipates to remain indisputable in offering the best entertainment in the region. The summer Breeze Concert was conducted by the Jazz Revolution band. The band consisted of Letron Brantley on saxophone and flute, Mark Catoe on acoustic Piano, Wilbur Thompson on acoustic Electric Bass and Upright, Kristin Randals as lead vocalist, Adam Snow on the drums and Mayhue Bostic on the guitar. The six piece jazz ensemble performed on a small stage at the one of the ends of the Tiger club. The concert was set in a small and intimate space to provide the best setting for jazz hearing. Half of the stage is taken by a baby grand piano. The band performed a mixture of modal and hard bop jazz. Just like any other genre of music, jazz music entails the telling of a story (Ake et al 2010). The jazz revolution band collectively performed ten of their pieces; however, only four of them were different in terms of style, allowing the audience to get diversified sounds of jazz music. The band performed â€Å"Fly Me to the Moon â€Å", an upbeat standard with a consonance, Latin –inspired, at the beginning of the song that set out the romantic mood, initially. A saxophone-piano served as an alteration to the song’s melody, creating an impression of two lovers flying to the moon. The rhythm of the song was initially steady but fastened up as the song was approaching its climax. With an increased passion for the song, the texture had a new twist as the saxophone carried on the melody while the piano and other instruments accompanied. At the climax, the dynamics of the song seemed to get